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    MECHANISM OF ACTION OF THE GENERAL ANESTHESIA General anesthesia has been around for more than 170 years but the exact mechanism of action of how it works is still unknown to us. What we have are theories. But in recent years thanks to the technologies and extensive research we have been supplanted by the unitary method which targets the molecular level of the organ like the CNS at different levels. What does the anesthetics do with the CNS?   Mostly they affect the different cellular locations of the neuron most of which is the synapse. In the synapse, they alter the pre and postsynaptic locations. If they act at the presynaptic locations then they alter the release of the neurotransmitters and if they alter the postsynaptic neuron then they change the frequency of the impulse conduction. At the organ level, it means that there will be an inhibition strengthen or weakened excitation of the central nervous system and thus the stimulus will not be interpreted...

    Types of immunity   There are basically two categories of immunity broadly divided they are innate and adapted. INNATE IMMUNITY Innate immunity is present in our body from birth and it is basically a generalized type of immunity. Innate immunity act upon all kinds of particles that invade the host cells. Or can penetrate to the host tissues. In innate immunity, the first line of defense is provided by epithelial barriers of the skin and mucosal tissues and by cells and natural antibiotics present in epithelia, all of which function to block the entry of microbes.   If microbes do breach epithelia and enter the tissues or circulation, they are attacked by phagocytes, specialized lymphocytes called innate lymphoid cells, which include natural killer cells, and several plasma proteins, including the proteins of the complement system. All these cells react when there is a microbe invasion in our body. The innate immunity act as a frontline barrier in t...

  Immunity What is immunity?   Why do we not get sick so often compared to the number of organisms we get in contact with? What are the basic functions of the immune system and how does it work So, the resistance to any kind of disease or to the causative organism that might cause the disease is the basic definition of immunity. There are many cells tissues and organs that take part to provide immunity in our body and collectively they are called the  immune system.   The process of achieving the immunity by the cells and the organ is called the immune response. The study of the all three immunity, immune system, and the immune response mechanism   is called  immunology. The most important function of the immune system is to protect our body from infectious diseases. There are other functions too like our immune system helps the body to reduce the growth of tumors, it also helps in the initiation of tissue repair and also in the clearance of...

  What is anesthesia? Since when are we using anesthesia? What do anesthetists do to make us sleep? What function do these medications do? Is anesthesia only making us sleep or does it do any other functions? Have u ever undergone any kind of surgery in which the doctor sedated you? There are many people who have surgeries done because of various reasons. Many of those surgeries are painful and if it were to be done when we are in our natural senses we would not be able to survive the pain, sight, and even the feeling of the surgery. To prevent all of that people began using anesthesia. The surgeon could better have access to the patient. The patient would not feel the pain of him or her being cut open and would not see the organs and blood if not a fan of those kinds of scenarios. History Anesthesia has been going on along with surgery for centuries. The initial forms of anesthesia were basically derived from natural sources. those were plants like cannabis, mand...

  PITFALLS IN THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM There have been remarkable improvements in the field of technology and it has left its masks in the medical area too There have been too many advancements in the medical field itself too. the advancing medicine has lead to the emerging of way too many subspecialties in many fields. Those subspecialties provide us with a deeper knowledge of the specified field and thus more and more effective treatment can be given.  The subspecialties have been giving us better knowledge and treatment opportunities but there are some pitfalls that we cannot neglect. In the case of cardiology, there are many subspecialties  Subspecialties of the cardiology field include  1. cardiac  electrophysiology  2. echocardiography  3.  interventional cardiology  4. nuclear cardiology. There are a few reasons that the increase in the number of subspecialties in the cardiovascular field has lead to some consequences. They are as fol...

EDEMA OR OEDEMA The most common thing that we think of when we think of edema is swelling or the accumulation of water in any body part. Well that is partially correct but what leads to the retention of excess fluid in the body? Where is this water retention happens? What are the basic factors that play a role during edema? What is the basic management or preventive measures that we can take for it? Well that are the basic questions about which we will know in this article. First thing that we need for edema is fluid and the fluid that is present in our body mostly comes from water. As we know that our body is composed of 60% water. Emphasizing the term 60% is that if you weigh 75kgs then the amount of water in your body will be 60% of 75 kg which is 42 liters. Now, 42 liters of water are distributed all over the body. Now, the body water can be divided into 2 major groups extracellular(outside the cells) and intracellular(inside the cells) in which intracellular is 2...

HYPEREMIA AND CONGESTION Ever had a bruising? Umm …. We all had it right? What if the blood accumulates not under our skin like in bruise but in important organs like the lungs? What happens if the tissues in our body begin to accumulate blood? Why does it happen? Can we treat it and if yes then how? In this post, we are going to cover two situations that happen in the body due to the increase in the volume of blood in the tissues…. We can ask a question that the heart pumps blood that is supposed to reach the tissues but why do we bother if the blood is already present and that too in much more adequate amount? Well, it's much more complex than that let us learn why. The two conditions in which there is an accumulation of blood in the tissues is HYPEREMIA and CONGESTION. In both of them, there is an accumulation of blood but there are different mechanisms through which the blood collects. Let’s discuss them one by one. HYPEREMIA- it is an active process in which the...

  ACUTE INFLAMMATION P reviously we discussed the types of inflammation briefly and in here we will know more about acute inflammation  general features of inflammation steps of inflammation causes of inflammation Before discussing acute inflammation exclusively, we should know the general pathway of inflammation which is described below Due to the presence of an injurious agent or dead cells or tissue damage the phagocytes present in the tissues or organ try to eliminate the causative agent. Along with killing abilities the also has release soluble substances which cause inflammation and also act as mediators which help the leukocytes to reach the affected place. There are three basic steps in the acute inflammation 1.            Dilation of small vessels, leading to an increase in blood flow, 2.                Increased permeability of the microvasculature, enabling plasma proteins an...

EMPHYSEMA DEFINITION   Emphysema is characterized by permanent enlargement of the air spaces distal to the terminal bronchioles, accompanied by destruction of their walls without significant fibrosis. It is one of the diseases that make up COPD . It is mostly caused by smoking and other reasons also which cannot be diagnosed. EPIDEMIOLOGY The prevalence of emphysema in the U.S is about 14 million. There has been an increase in the cases of emphysema in the recent years due to the increase in the number of smokers. Another factor that plays role is environmental pollution and sometimes genetic factors also come into play. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Inhaled cigarette smoke and other noxious particles cause lung damage and inflammation, which, particularly in patients with a genetic predisposition, result in parenchymal destruction (emphysema) and airway disease (bronchiolitis and chronic bronchitis). Factors that influence the development of emphysema include the following  1. Inflammatory...

 IN  the previous posts we talked about the history , communication , and  working  of the patients through the EMS here we will know- How are the patients transferred from one hospital to another? How are the records of a patient kept? 1.      Patient Transfer- Patients are often transferred from one medical facility to another for a higher level of care.  The safe  transfer is an important concept. Many problems can be avoided if the transferring and receiving facilities develop transfer agreements in advance. The Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act passed in 1986, sets forth rules that hospitals participating in the Medicare program must adhere to when considering a patient transfer. Under the Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act, all patients must receive a medical screening exam and be stabilized before a transfer is considered. There must also be explicit acceptance of the transfer by the rec...